Pharmacognosis
Rising Star
When I was researching Iboga and Bwiti I came across various other healing cults throughout Africa that utilize hallucinogenic plant allies. One group in particular I found especially fascinating in their parallels with ayahuasca, cacti, and mushroom shamanism in the Americas was the Ihamba exorcists of the Ndembu. These healers work in the same "virote" spirit-dart methodology found from Peru to Oaxaca, and employ many of the same plant families. The similarities are so apparent I would be very suprised if this is not a African line of tryptamine based shamanism that has been overlooked in the West. Rather then employing strictly the dream shamanism ubulawu brews used in South Africa, these healers use a category of plants called bhayiskhobho, or cinema in Zulu, which enables them to see the offending spirits and suck them out. The best paper on this that details plant species is "A review of plants used in divination in southern Africa and their psychoactive effects" by J. F. Sobiecki found for free here.
In the appendix is listed the plants in usage by Ihamba exorcists. I will quote the two or so pages of relevant species to show the reason for my excitement about this:
Albizia adianthifolia(Schumach.) W. Wright var. adianthifolia
Fabaceae
Parts used unknown
Unidentified parts are taken orally to induce dreams
and improve the memory (V) [33].
Avonia rhodesica(N.E.Br.) G.D.Rowley.
Portulacaceae
Common name unknown (B), tirika(Sh)
Parts used unknown
A beer additive in Zimbabwe, it is reported to have
hallucinogenic and narcotic activity [12], [47]. Used
in rainmaking rituals together with other
psychoactive plants such as Datura stramonium* and
Chenopodium ambrosioides(B) [8].
Anisophyllea boehmii Engl.
Anisophylleaceae
mufungu(Nd)
Leaf, bark
The bark is boiled and the leaves are made into a
cold-water infusion that is taken orally together with
other plants as a drinking medicine in the ihamba
(spirit) exorcism ritual (Nd) [45]. Psychoactive
effects were experienced after the infusion was taken
[45].
Canthium inerme (L.f.) Kuntze
Rubiaceae
muhotuhotu(Nd)
Leaf
Unspecified parts are prepared into a cold-water
infusion that is taken orally with other plants as a
drinking medicine in the ihamba(spirit) exorcism
ritual (Nd) [45]. Psychoactive effects were
experienced after the infusion was taken [45].
Commiphora africana(A.Rich.) Engl. .var. africana
Burseraceae
Common name unknown (San)
Leaf
The Diamphidia vittatipennis beetle larvae eat the
leaves of this tree, and produce diamphidia toxin
which is used as an arrow poison. However, ingested
or smoked, it is non-toxic to mammals and it is
reported that the dried and powdered larvae are
smoked together with tobacco by the San, causing
them to fall into a state of drunkenness and
hallucination [36]. This plant may have had uses in
aiding trances among the San.
Datura metelL.*
Solanaceae
mondzo(Ts), iloyi(Z)
Parts used unknown
Unspecified parts are taken to induce hallucination
in the final rite of the Tsonga girls puberty school.
Eleutherine bulbosa * (Miller) Urban
Iridaceae
abanqonqosi/ababomvu(Z)
Bulb
The plant is believed to be used by indigenous healers
for its magical and hallucinatory properties (Z) [20].
Ipomoea tricolorCav.
Convolvulaceae
Common names unknown
Seed
In Zimbabwe unspecified groups chew 200 to 500
seeds to induce hallucinations [12].
Justicia flava (Vahl) Vahl.
Acanthaceae
impela(Z)
Root
Roots are used in magic ceremonies in South Africa
(Z) [20]. Justiciaspecies are added to a
hallucinogenic snuff in Colombia and Brazil and may
contain N.N-dimethyltryptamine.
Ochna pulchra Hook. f.
Ochnaceae
musengu(Nd)
Bark, leaf
A bark decoction is made into drinking medicine,
and leaves are used as a wash for patients’ bodies in
the ihamba (spirit) exorcism ritual (Nd) [45].
Psychoactive effects were experienced after the
infusion was taken [45].
Sceletium tortuosum(L.) N.E.Br.
Mesembryanthemaceae
kanna(K)
Aerial parts
The prepared plant material is chewed, with
numerous psychoactive uses on record for this plant,
notably as a mood enhancer and anxiolytic (K) [47].
Its role in San trance induction has been convincingly
demonstrated in a recent paper by Mitchell and
Hudson (2004).
Sphedamnocarpus pruriens (A.Juss.) Szyszyl. subsp.
pruriens
Malpighiaceae
pupuma(Cho)
Parts used unknown
Unspecified parts are used by the Chopi with
Securidaca longepedunculatafor people believed to
be possessed by evil spirits (Cho) [49]. Roots are
used for mental disorders by the Venda [33].
Vangueriopsis lancifliora (Hiern) Robyns. (lancifolia?)
Rubiaceae
musoli(Nd)
Bark, leaf
The tree of revelation. The bark is boiled and the
leaves are made into a cold-water infusion, that is
taken orally, together with other plants as a drinking
medicine in the ihamba (spirit) exorcism rituals (Nd)
[45]. Roots are used to treat madness in Malawi [12].
Xylopia odoratissimaWelw. ex Oliv.
Annonaceae
mututambulolu(Nd)
Root
Scraped roots are boiled and the juice is taken orally
with other ingredients in the ihamba(spirit) exorcism
rituals (Nd) [45]. Psychoactive effects were
experienced after the infusion was taken [45].
Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich is said to contain
the alkaloid anonaceine that resembles morphine in
action [49].
Ziziphus mucronata Willd. subsp. mucronata
Rhamnaceae
chikwata(Nd)
Root
Used with other plants as a drinking medicine in the
ihamba(spirit) exorcism rituals [45]. It has analgesic
effects [20].
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There are Mimosa(Albizias), Ipomoea, Justicia, Daturas, Malpighiaceae, and Anisophyllea in usage. Sceletium and Zizyphus are not suprising and are probably useful additives. From this paper the primary admixtures that the others are added to seems to be Canthium inerme and Vangueriopsis lancifliora, which my guess is their Psychotria or Chaliponga equivalent, and the Sphedamnocarpus or the Anisophyllea boehmii would possibly be their caapi equivalent.
Another reference I found in the book "Experiencing Ritual: A New Interpretation of African Healing" By Edith Turner (pg 181) shows the uniqueness of this tradition throughout African shamanistic society (and its closeness to vegetalismo):
"Ihamba is thus, in most respects, a typical Ndembu and African ritual. However, except for the Shona (see Appendix 4), the ritual itself is different from the others in an important matter. The extraction is by suction, and something is shown as a result. This particular feature is somewhat different to exorcism as such. Where then is it's place in African culture? Owing to the paucity of detailed material on rituals related to this feature of Ihamba, one may do no more than make a sketchy picture of it's place among the rituals of neighboring peoples. At least, we can say that it is because of the internal coherence of the former Ndembu hunting cults that Ihamba, the healing version of those cults, has shown such persistence and that this has helped to give strength to the reputation of all Lunda people as great ritualists."
While digging around for these plant species I found a few nurseries in South Africa that deal primarily in indigenous flora for landscaping and preservation. One had a Canthium species listed in their catalog, but I think it's a tree and probably not too mobile. Regardless, if this group has parallel-evolved a beta-carboline/dmt African vegetalismo it is big news and worthy of attention. The mention of Zimbabwe tribesmen chewing morning glory seeds was the first time I'd heard of that also.
In the appendix is listed the plants in usage by Ihamba exorcists. I will quote the two or so pages of relevant species to show the reason for my excitement about this:
Albizia adianthifolia(Schumach.) W. Wright var. adianthifolia
Fabaceae
Parts used unknown
Unidentified parts are taken orally to induce dreams
and improve the memory (V) [33].
Avonia rhodesica(N.E.Br.) G.D.Rowley.
Portulacaceae
Common name unknown (B), tirika(Sh)
Parts used unknown
A beer additive in Zimbabwe, it is reported to have
hallucinogenic and narcotic activity [12], [47]. Used
in rainmaking rituals together with other
psychoactive plants such as Datura stramonium* and
Chenopodium ambrosioides(B) [8].
Anisophyllea boehmii Engl.
Anisophylleaceae
mufungu(Nd)
Leaf, bark
The bark is boiled and the leaves are made into a
cold-water infusion that is taken orally together with
other plants as a drinking medicine in the ihamba
(spirit) exorcism ritual (Nd) [45]. Psychoactive
effects were experienced after the infusion was taken
[45].
Canthium inerme (L.f.) Kuntze
Rubiaceae
muhotuhotu(Nd)
Leaf
Unspecified parts are prepared into a cold-water
infusion that is taken orally with other plants as a
drinking medicine in the ihamba(spirit) exorcism
ritual (Nd) [45]. Psychoactive effects were
experienced after the infusion was taken [45].
Commiphora africana(A.Rich.) Engl. .var. africana
Burseraceae
Common name unknown (San)
Leaf
The Diamphidia vittatipennis beetle larvae eat the
leaves of this tree, and produce diamphidia toxin
which is used as an arrow poison. However, ingested
or smoked, it is non-toxic to mammals and it is
reported that the dried and powdered larvae are
smoked together with tobacco by the San, causing
them to fall into a state of drunkenness and
hallucination [36]. This plant may have had uses in
aiding trances among the San.
Datura metelL.*
Solanaceae
mondzo(Ts), iloyi(Z)
Parts used unknown
Unspecified parts are taken to induce hallucination
in the final rite of the Tsonga girls puberty school.
Eleutherine bulbosa * (Miller) Urban
Iridaceae
abanqonqosi/ababomvu(Z)
Bulb
The plant is believed to be used by indigenous healers
for its magical and hallucinatory properties (Z) [20].
Ipomoea tricolorCav.
Convolvulaceae
Common names unknown
Seed
In Zimbabwe unspecified groups chew 200 to 500
seeds to induce hallucinations [12].
Justicia flava (Vahl) Vahl.
Acanthaceae
impela(Z)
Root
Roots are used in magic ceremonies in South Africa
(Z) [20]. Justiciaspecies are added to a
hallucinogenic snuff in Colombia and Brazil and may
contain N.N-dimethyltryptamine.
Ochna pulchra Hook. f.
Ochnaceae
musengu(Nd)
Bark, leaf
A bark decoction is made into drinking medicine,
and leaves are used as a wash for patients’ bodies in
the ihamba (spirit) exorcism ritual (Nd) [45].
Psychoactive effects were experienced after the
infusion was taken [45].
Sceletium tortuosum(L.) N.E.Br.
Mesembryanthemaceae
kanna(K)
Aerial parts
The prepared plant material is chewed, with
numerous psychoactive uses on record for this plant,
notably as a mood enhancer and anxiolytic (K) [47].
Its role in San trance induction has been convincingly
demonstrated in a recent paper by Mitchell and
Hudson (2004).
Sphedamnocarpus pruriens (A.Juss.) Szyszyl. subsp.
pruriens
Malpighiaceae
pupuma(Cho)
Parts used unknown
Unspecified parts are used by the Chopi with
Securidaca longepedunculatafor people believed to
be possessed by evil spirits (Cho) [49]. Roots are
used for mental disorders by the Venda [33].
Vangueriopsis lancifliora (Hiern) Robyns. (lancifolia?)
Rubiaceae
musoli(Nd)
Bark, leaf
The tree of revelation. The bark is boiled and the
leaves are made into a cold-water infusion, that is
taken orally, together with other plants as a drinking
medicine in the ihamba (spirit) exorcism rituals (Nd)
[45]. Roots are used to treat madness in Malawi [12].
Xylopia odoratissimaWelw. ex Oliv.
Annonaceae
mututambulolu(Nd)
Root
Scraped roots are boiled and the juice is taken orally
with other ingredients in the ihamba(spirit) exorcism
rituals (Nd) [45]. Psychoactive effects were
experienced after the infusion was taken [45].
Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich is said to contain
the alkaloid anonaceine that resembles morphine in
action [49].
Ziziphus mucronata Willd. subsp. mucronata
Rhamnaceae
chikwata(Nd)
Root
Used with other plants as a drinking medicine in the
ihamba(spirit) exorcism rituals [45]. It has analgesic
effects [20].
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There are Mimosa(Albizias), Ipomoea, Justicia, Daturas, Malpighiaceae, and Anisophyllea in usage. Sceletium and Zizyphus are not suprising and are probably useful additives. From this paper the primary admixtures that the others are added to seems to be Canthium inerme and Vangueriopsis lancifliora, which my guess is their Psychotria or Chaliponga equivalent, and the Sphedamnocarpus or the Anisophyllea boehmii would possibly be their caapi equivalent.
Another reference I found in the book "Experiencing Ritual: A New Interpretation of African Healing" By Edith Turner (pg 181) shows the uniqueness of this tradition throughout African shamanistic society (and its closeness to vegetalismo):
"Ihamba is thus, in most respects, a typical Ndembu and African ritual. However, except for the Shona (see Appendix 4), the ritual itself is different from the others in an important matter. The extraction is by suction, and something is shown as a result. This particular feature is somewhat different to exorcism as such. Where then is it's place in African culture? Owing to the paucity of detailed material on rituals related to this feature of Ihamba, one may do no more than make a sketchy picture of it's place among the rituals of neighboring peoples. At least, we can say that it is because of the internal coherence of the former Ndembu hunting cults that Ihamba, the healing version of those cults, has shown such persistence and that this has helped to give strength to the reputation of all Lunda people as great ritualists."
While digging around for these plant species I found a few nurseries in South Africa that deal primarily in indigenous flora for landscaping and preservation. One had a Canthium species listed in their catalog, but I think it's a tree and probably not too mobile. Regardless, if this group has parallel-evolved a beta-carboline/dmt African vegetalismo it is big news and worthy of attention. The mention of Zimbabwe tribesmen chewing morning glory seeds was the first time I'd heard of that also.
